https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/ Philosophy of Religion Research en daily 1 Sat, 22 Nov 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 22 Nov 2025 00:00:00 +0330 https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77967.html https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77885.html The attribute of God’s omnibenevolence has led some philosophers of religion to question the efficacy of petitionary prayer. According to these critics, if God is perfectly good, God’s decision about whether to bring about or refrain from bringing about a certain state of affairs must depend solely on the intrinsic goodness and overall value of that state of affairs, rather than on human petitions. Consequently, petitionary prayer would appear to lack any real efficacy. The approach of “God’s moral obligation toward human requests” seeks to explain the effectiveness of prayer by appealing to a kind of moral responsibility that arises in God in response to human expressions of need and supplication. This study first outlines the challenge to the efficacy of petitionary prayer posed by the doctrine of God’s omnibenevolence and then examines the foundations of the divine moral obligation approach, focusing on the views of Jerome Gellman and Scott Hill. Explaining the efficacy of petitionary prayer through the notion of God’s moral obligation has certain merits: it highlights the ethical dimension of prayer and accords with several key features found in religious traditions - such as God’s invitation to pray, His promise to answer, and the existence of specific conditions for the fulfillment of prayers. However, unless the concept of “God’s moral obligation” is interpreted in a way consistent with God’s absolute self-sufficiency, and the idea of “the desert of answered prayer” is understood in light of human dependence and poverty before God, this approach risks conflicting with the essential nature of prayer as an expression of servitude and humility before Him. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77886.html Compatibilism is the position that considers evolutionary theory and interventionist theism to be compatible. Compatibilists see the directedness of the components or features of the biosphere to be compatible with the chance-driven nature of the evolutionary process. An important question facing the compatibilist is: How is it possible for blind and undirected chance events to shape a purposeful and directed biosphere? To answer, the compatibilist must provide a model of chance events whose aggregate can be considered directed. In this paper, we will examine two candidate models for this aim. First model, which we called the “Polkinghorne model,” includes following elements: the insufficiency of reductionism, top-down causation, ontological gaps, holism & contextualism, the existence of chance in the universe, divine agency and active information, dual-aspect monism, and objective becoming. Then we argue that the last three elements are not necessary for compatibilist purposes, so the more appropriate model, which we called the “modified Polkinghorne model,” is weaker than the Polkinghorne model. Thus, we show that the theory of evolution is consistent with the claim that, despite the chance nature of the events that form the biosphere, at least some aspects of the biosphere are directed. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77890.html This article explores the ethical dilemma of developing emotionalized artificial intelligence (EAI) through the philosophical lens of meaning of life. It begins by analyzing foundational views from Thomas Nagel and Susan Wolf on absurdity and the role of emotional relationships—particularly love—in meaningful life. The paper then reviews key literature in AI ethics, with a focus on human-robot emotional interaction, and outlines a framework for evaluating EAI from an expanded perspective of technology ethics. The central argument asserts that emotional relationships, especially love, are among the core sources of human meaningfulness, and the integration of EAI into this domain risks undermining that source. Drawing on Verbeek’s expanded ethics of technology, the paper contends that EAI functions as a competitor to human affection, thereby restricting our access to genuine emotional engagement. After presenting and defending this argument against potential objections, the article concludes that emotionalized AI raises serious ethical concerns. Without addressing these concerns, its development cannot be considered ethically justified. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77888.html Spinoza’s philosophy may be classified among the forms of philosophical theism, in the sense that it affirms the existence of God and regards God as absolutely one. However, the conception of God that Spinoza offers is by no means identical with that of the theologians and philosophers in the classical Abrahamic tradition. Throughout his works, Spinoza presents several arguments to demonstrate the unity of God or the divine substance. In this paper, using a descriptive-analytical method, we present and explicate these arguments. Most of them are grounded in the notions of “absolute perfection” and “necessity of existence”. Some of these arguments do not deny a plurality of substances and merely affirm the unity of the divine substance, whereas others aim to prove that the divine substance is the only existing and conceivable substance—that is, strict substance monism. We also argue that Spinoza’s proof of God in the Ethics, if formulated in its conventional manner, is not conclusive. Therefore, by appealing to the distinction between “absolute infinity” and “infinity of a kind”, we propose a more coherent reconstruction of that proof. In expounding the major arguments, we also trace their conceptual antecedents among medieval Jewish, Christian, and Islamic philosophers. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77905.html The question concerning the nature and significance of symbol and myth has always been one of the most fundamental and, at the same time, most challenging issues in the history of philosophy. From ancient Greece to the modern era, philosophers have proposed diverse approaches to explain the function and meaning of these two categories. Among them, Paul Ricoeur stands out as one of the foremost thinkers who, in the early phase of his thought, addressed the relationship between symbol, myth, and philosophical anthropology from a hermeneutical perspective. At this stage of his intellectual development, Ricoeur outlined the project of a philosophical anthropology, within which he defended the meaningfulness of symbolic systems and regarded symbols and myths as a privileged ground for understanding the human condition. From his viewpoint, humanity’s experience of evil constitutes a fundamental encounter that reveals an existential predicament—an experience that has found expression in what he calls the symbols of confession. Thus, through the recovery and interpretation of the hidden meanings embedded in these symbols, one may attain anthropological insight and understanding. In his analysis of the three symbols of confession—Defilement, Sin, and Guilt—Ricoeur identifies a subjective progression whereby evil gradually becomes internalized, and the human being comes to feel its weight within the unity of the self. Moreover, since myth, in Ricoeur’s view, confers a narrative dimension upon the symbol, these three symbols of confession are each narrated within four distinct mythic forms: “the Babylonian creation myth”, “the tragic vision of existence”, “the myth of the exiled soul”, and “the myth of Adam”. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77904.html “Al-Hayat al-Tayyiba” (the Qurʾanic concept of a pure life) represents a higher, genuine, and elevated form of existence, surpassing ordinary life and carrying ontological implications. This concept can inform notions of progress, well-being, and happiness, which in today’s modern world structure diverse realms of individual, familial, social, and political activities. However, the extensive and varied application of this concept has led to conceptual ambiguity, complicating its systematic use by researchers. A research paradigm provides a framework for understanding the nature of knowledge and the methods of its production, enabling researchers to identify the fundamental assumptions and beliefs shaping their inquiry. Accordingly, the main objective of this study is to explicate the research paradigm of al-Hayat al-Tayyiba based on the thought of Muhammad Husayn Tabatabaʾi, using a text-oriented hermeneutic approach and documentary data collection. The research paradigm of al-Hayat al-Tayyiba was developed along four elements: ontology, axiology, epistemology, and methodology. Ontologically, al-Hayat al-Tayyiba actualizes through a gradual ascent across the three realms of existence—from the material, through the imaginal, to the intellectual. Axiologically, the ultimate value of this life lies in the realization of the station of Divine Vicegerency (khalīfa Allah). Epistemologically, comprehension and attainment of this life are contingent upon the soul’s existential journey and the exercise of practical mental constructs (iʿtibāriyāt). Methodologically, faith and righteous deeds constitute the two fundamental pillars for actualizing al-Hayat al-Tayyiba. However, the manner and process of actualization are also contingent upon the principle of contextual embeddedness. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77902.html Since scholars in the theology of nature have not yet succeeded in providing a satisfactory account of special divine action, some have called for a reconsideration of the philosophical foundations of natural theology, advancing the idea of a theological return from the theology of nature to natural theology. Ignacio Silva, one of the leading proponents of this return, bases his position on the acceptance of a fundamental indeterminacy at the root of all natural changes, in contrast to accounts grounded in scientific theories within the theology of nature, such as quantum theory and chaos theory. By appealing to the concept of material cause and affirming matter as an ontological constituent of natural entities, Silva argues that a natural entity may remain receptive to the influx of forms from multiple sources. Thus, the existence of natural agents does not preclude a supernatural agent from bringing about new forms within nature. This view, which entails a creative and non-lawlike divine intervention in the natural world, leaves no room in Mulla Sadra’s philosophical system, given his principles such as the union of matter and form, the rejection of generation and corruption, and substantial motion. Furthermore, by denying special divine action to God and completely immaterial beings, Mulla Sadra grounds his explanation of natural change in the agency of the Universal Soul, which becomes central to his response to the problem of special divine action. Despite certain advantages—such as resolving the problem of temporal interaction between the supernatural and nature, bridging the metaphysical gap between them, and dispensing with the theory of celestial spheres to explain natural change—Mulla Sadra’s account remains problematic due to ambiguities regarding the mechanism of agency of the Universal Soul, the unclear relation between its action and the pre-existing matter of events, and its tension with the doctrine of divine attributes. These issues prevent it from offering a fully satisfactory explanation. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77907.html One of the neglected areas within the Islamic philosophy is the issue of Islamic moral philosophy. When the term “moral philosophy” is mentioned, it is often understood in its specific sense, that is, metaethics. One of the principal topics in metaethics, also referred to as analytical ethics, is the epistemology of moral propositions. The present study seeks to examine the epistemology of moral propositions from the perspectives of al-Farabi and al-Ghazali. In order to extract the views of al-Farabi and al-Ghazali regarding moral propositions, their approaches to the issue of moral good and evil (ḥusn and qubḥ) as well as their theories about syllogisms’ premises (mawādd al-ʾaqīsa) in logic are explored. Finally, an epistemological analysis of moral propositions is presented from the standpoint of these two thinkers. In the field of the epistemology of moral propositions, al-Farabi considers such propositions to be non-declarative (inshāʾī) – though not purely non-declarative – and conventional (iʿtibārī), holding that they function in a dialectical (jadalī) manner. Similarly, al-Ghazali also regards these propositions as non-declarative and conventional with a dialectical function; however, the difference lies in the fact that while al-Farabi grounds the conventional nature of moral propositions in reason, al-Ghazali traces the foundation of their validity to religion and thus maintains the religious nature of ethics. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77921.html Existential challenges constitute some of humanity's most profound concerns, arising from individuals' encounters with fundamental questions regarding meaning, purpose, freedom, loneliness, and death. Unlike routine problems, these challenges are inherently philosophical and fundamental, deeply influencing all dimensions of human life. To achieve a comprehensive and systematic understanding of these challenges, this study employs a synthesis research method to identify and classify various components of existential challenges, introducing a novel analytical framework based on the fourfold model of human relationships. By encompassing different existential dimensions—individual (self-awareness and introspection), social (human relationships), spirituality, and nature—and exploring their interrelationships, this framework facilitates a more realistic and profound understanding of existential concerns, providing more effective strategies for addressing them. The findings indicate that many existential crises originate primarily from an individual's relationship with the self, the primary source of perception and understanding, subsequently reflecting in other relational dimensions. Furthermore, each existential challenge can be traced across these four types of relationships, with the quality of these interactions directly influencing the intensification or alleviation of existential anxieties. Utilizing this fourfold relationship analytical framework allows for a more precise identification of the root causes of existential issues within individuals and enables a deeper exploration of relational dysfunctions as underlying factors contributing to these challenges. This analytical approach thus lays the groundwork for developing more effective interventions and strategies, ultimately enhancing life quality and fostering existential growth. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77926.html The concept of resurrection (maʿād) constitutes a fundamental pillar of the Islamic worldview. Numerous interpretations and theories have been proposed regarding its types and nature. Advocates of the Tafkik school argue that a substantial body of Qurʾanic verses and narrations—both in explicit and apparent meanings—affirm a corporeal (elemental) resurrection. They accuse their opponents of “unrestrained allegorical interpretation,” “misunderstanding the apparent meaning of the Qur’an,” and even “opposing its explicit texts,” ultimately leading to charges of heresy and deviation. Given the extensive volume of relevant sources, this study focuses exclusively on Qurʾan 2:259, which recounts the story of ʿUzayr (Ezra) or the prophet Irmiyā (Jeremiah). Employing a descriptive-analytical method with a critical approach, the study argues that the Tafkiki reading is shaped by subjective presuppositions imposed upon the verse. The central question of this verse and those that follow does not concern how the dead return to life or in what form, but rather how the divine agent enacts resurrection, and what the nature of this revivification is. The author contends that the verse in question is unrelated to eschatological resurrection, and its core semantic axis concerns the metaphysical reality of time and its relationship to different realms of existence. The verse suggests that humanity's limited perception of time stems from its continuous embeddedness within temporal experience. Ultimately, the study concludes that the apparent meaning of the verse neither substantiates the claim of corporeal resurrection nor refutes Mulla Ṣadra’s theory of imaginal resurrection. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77931.html Richard Swinburne, a contemporary English philosopher, argues that religious experiences can be valid evidence for the existence of God. Central to his approach is the “principle of credulity”, which maintains that if an individual has an apparent experience of God’s presence, that experience should be accepted as genuine unless there are strong grounds for doubt. Swinburne also upholds the “principle of testimony”, asserting that people’s reports of religious experiences are trustworthy unless there is compelling evidence to the contrary. Some critics, drawing on the “theory of pragmatic encroachment”, contend that principles like credulity and testimony are inadequate in significant matters or with far-reaching consequences. From the pragmatic encroachment view, the more consequential an issue, the greater the requirement for robust evidence before accepting it. Since belief in God has profound implications for both individual and social life, its acceptance, they argue, should rest on evidence beyond personal experience or the testimony of others. Thus, by this account, credulity and testimony are insufficient for establishing the reality of religious experiences. Nevertheless, the findings of this study suggest that pragmatic encroachment does not undermine the use of credulity and testimony in relation to religious experience. This is because knowledge—conceived as justified true belief—is not swayed by practical considerations. Therefore, as long as religious experiences and consistent testimonies generate certainty for the subject, applying the principles of credulity and testimony in discussions about God remains reasonable and justified. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_77951.html This study, using an analytical-descriptive method and a critical rationalism approach, examines the necessity of a common language for understanding the Quran. Its central question is: If the audience of the Quranic verses is all of humanity, is a unified language not essential for conveying the divine message? In response, relying on a pragmatic approach and based on the Quran's anthropological foundations, which consider rationality an inherent human value (such as the emphasis on "Ulū al-Albāb" (those possessed of intellect) in numerous verses), the author proposes the theory of the "necessity of a common language for understanding the Quran". The findings indicate that, firstly, by addressing the general public as rational beings, the Quran presupposes the existence of a common understanding. Secondly, this common language itself provides the necessary groundwork for achieving "semantic fluidity" in applying the verses to different contexts. The ultimate outcome of the research emphasizes that religious language, as a communicative tool, can only achieve its primary goal – i.e. conveying the divine message to all people – through the establishment of a unified and common understanding. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_78054.html In Kant's ethical theory, the meaning of life lies in fulfilling moral duties, following rational principles, and respecting the categorical imperative. Kant believes that a moral life is inherently meaningful, and the ultimate goal of human beings should be the realization of justice, freedom, and respect for moral values. He emphasizes that the meaning of life is not found in the pursuit of individual happiness, but in the effort to act according to moral and rational principles. Kant introduces the concept of practical reason as the human ability to act based on moral principles, which enables an individual not only to understand what is right but also to act accordingly. He also stresses the importance of the good will as the foundation of morality, a will that acts out of duty and moral principles, rather than personal outcomes or self-interest. Kant presents the categorical imperative as a guide for moral action, according to which every action must be such that it could be accepted as a universal law for all. Furthermore, he emphasizes human autonomy and freedom, which allow individuals to make decisions based on reason and moral principles. Ultimately, Kant regards the highest good as the ultimate goal of life, a combination of virtue and happiness. For him, a meaningful life is achieved when individuals act according to moral principles and strive toward the realization of the highest good. https://prrj.isu.ac.ir/article_78055.html Study on the essence of religion can be considered one of the necessary and beneficial steps in the direction of subject identification. A movement that, if continued and placed on the right path, could be effective in moderating and correcting the prevailing reductionist approaches and help to repair and strengthen various fields of study of religion. However, this endeavor, stemming from its roots in Christianity and modern Western society, took a course that was at odds with its original purposes. Rather than distinguishing it from similar categories and emphasizing the aspects of distinction, it promoted the de-identification of religions. Continuing this trend not only deprives objectivity from studies of religion, but also disregards the significant distinctions among religions, leading to the weakening and eventual extinction of the knowledge that it has fed on and from which it has gained its credibility. Another consequence of persisting in this trend is a change in purposes, moving from a position of "understanding religion" to a kind of "constructing religion".